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History

How did mercantilism increase the likelihood of conflicts between European powers?

Mercantilism was an economic system that was prevalent from the 16th through the 18th centuries, in which governments intervened heavily in their country’s economic activities to protect and promote their own national interests by applying tariffs, quotas, and other restrictions with a goal of maintaining a favorable balance of trade (greater exports than imports). Good examples of this system include England/Great Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands (Dutch Republic). One element of this system was to drive the creation of colonies, which were forced to provide raw materials to the controlling colonial power. These colonial territories were often simultaneously forced to purchase finished manufactured goods from the colonizing nation, thus further exaggerating the balance of trade between the two. European powers were the primary colonizers during this period, and their maintenance of power relied on the economic benefits of mercantilism. As a result, this often drew them into conflicts over particularly valuable colonial territories, for both the raw materials and purchasing markets they could provide. Furthermore, because these powers viewed the world’s wealth and resources as a zero-sum scenario, control of these resources drove trade wars, military buildup (especially powerful navies), and in many cases, outright war, such as the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Seven Years’ War.

History

Why is it called the Gilded Age?

The term “Gilded Age” comes from the late 19th-century United States and originates from the title of the book *The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today* by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner, published in 1873. The term “gilded” refers to the process of covering the surface of something with gold, typically stone, wood, porcelain, or metal. The use of the term $\text{\textquotedblleft}$Gilded Age" to describe the period in the US is a metaphor for the social and economic conditions of the time. While there was rapid economic growth, industrial expansion, and incredible generation of wealth during the era, it was the “gilding” that covered up the underlying social problems in society during the time, including pervasive government corruption, deep inequality, and poverty. Thus, the term is intended to denote an era in which the brilliant façade of society was merely a mask for profound social and economic flaws.

History

How did Western education systems impact the growth of Indian nationalism?

The introduction of Western education in India had mixed impacts. It was introduced during the colonial period in the early to mid-1800s by laws like the English Education Act of 1835, which was inspired by Thomas Babington Macaulay’s Memorandum on Education (sometimes known as Macaulay’s “Minute on Education”), and Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch of 1854, which both pushed the Indian education system toward English instruction. While the initial intention of its introduction on the part of the British Indian colonial authorities was to create a new class of Indians who would serve the British colonial government, it resulted in the emergence of a new, highly educated Indian middle class, the introduction of liberal and democratic ideas, growing political awareness that was critical of British rule, social reforms, cultural changes like the growth of English as a *lingua franca* on the Indian subcontinent, and the growth of secular, rationalist ideologies inspired by European thinkers like John Stuart Mill, Rousseau and Voltaire. As a result, Indians were exposed to increased teaching about liberty, equality, and democracy, which became the foundation for Indian nationalism. This newly educated Indian middle class included lawyers, teachers, journalists, and clerks who would become part of the mass movement of Indian nationalism. Many of the earliest nationalist organizations, like the Indiana National Congress (1885), would be founded by Western-educated Indians like Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath Banerjee, and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, and later expanded by people like Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. However, it is essential to acknowledge the limitations of this argument. Western education was generally only available to a small, urban elite, so it would be an overestimate of its impact to argue that this alone drove the growth of nationalism. The essence of this question is that Britain’s introduction of Western education in India was intended as a short-term benefit, but it helped drive the long-term downfall of the British Empire in India, laying the intellectual groundwork for Indian nationalism and India’s struggle for independence.

History

What were the effects of Bantu education?

The Bantu Education Act was passed in 1953 in South Africa as a part of a broader set of apartheid legislation in the 1950s including the Population Registration Act (1950), the Group Areas Act (1950), the Suppression of Communism Act (1950), the Bantu Authorities Act (1951), the Reservation of Separate Amenities Act (1953), and the Natives Resettlement Act (1954). The Bantu Education Act aimed to control and limit the education of Black South Africans, keeping them in subordinate roles in society and limiting social and economic advancement. To achieve this, the act implemented a curriculum in Black schools that emphasized manual labor and only basic literacy. Schools for black children were also notoriously underfunded and overcrowded, often lacking the most basic educational resources. In contrast, schools for white South Africans taught subjects that would lead toward university and professional careers, thus widening the economic and social gap even further between racial groups. The law also served to suppress Black South African cultures by devaluing African history and languages, which were often excluded from the curriculum and actively discouraged. One unintended consequence of the law was to drive increased resistance to the apartheid government. Organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC), South African Students Organisation (SASO), and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) all actively opposed the law. The Soweto Uprising in 1973 was started by students protesting being forced to learn Afrikaans in school. The long-term impact of the law was to generate high unemployment, poverty, and inequality in South Africa, which persisted even after the end of apartheid. Even today, the South African government struggles to undo the educational disparities between racial groups in South Africa.

History

What role did the Catholic Church play in the colonization of Latin America?

The Catholic Church played a central, complex, and multifaceted role in the colonization of Latin America beginning in the early 16th century, shaping every aspect of life in the colonies both for the colonizers themselves and the indigenous peoples and places being colonized. First, Catholic theology at the time provided the religious justification for colonization, arguing that it had the responsibility to “save” indigenous people by converting them to Christianity. The Pope and Papal Bulls gave Spain and Portugal the religious sanction to build their empires in the Americas and beyond. As a result of this religious mission, much of Latin America was converted and culturally assimilated. Jesuit, Franciscan, and Dominican missionaries built missions across the Americas for the purposes of conversion. These missions would also become centers of education and European culture, teaching European languages such as Spanish and Portuguese, as well as farming and building methods. Another element of these cultural changes was the construction of schools, universities, and printing presses, which shaped intellectual life in the colonies and helped to reinforce European values. Some of the earliest universities in Latin America include the Royal University of the City of Kings (now the National University of San Marcos) and the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico. These cultural changes also became a tool of control for the empires. The Catholic church also helped legitimize colonial racial and ethnic hierarchies, which would become the basis of the encomienda system, where indigenous workers were exploited under the pretext of Christian education. Economically, the Catholic church became one of the largest landowners in Latin America, controlling large estates, mines, and haciendas, which helped fuel the wealth of the European empires. Furthermore, the church collected “tithes,” which were taxes on agricultural output, giving them great wealth. Politically, the church played a crucial role in governance, with Catholic clergy advising and, in some cases, even controlling local leadership. Today, over half of the population of Latin America still identifies as Catholic, and the church still holds immense power and influence.

History

What were some new technologies used in the Hundred Years' War?

The Hundred Years’ War took place intermittently between 1337 and 1453 CE, and it is commonly divided into three phases, which were separated by long truces: the Edwardian War (1337–1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). The war included a variety of factions from across Western Europe, but was predominantly fought between the kingdoms of England and France. Due to the war’s prolonged duration, a range of significant military technologies emerged and gained widespread adoption. The English invented their famous Longbow, which allowed archers to fire with relative accuracy at ranges over 200 yards, piercing armor and undermining the use of heavy cavalry. They were well documented for their effectiveness during the battles of Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415). Early gunpowder weapons also gained greater use during the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe, though they were invented hundreds of years earlier in China. “Hand cannons” existed, but were generally less inaccurate and therefore less significant than bombards and full-sized cannons, which were used to break sieges and castle walls, thus making medieval fortifications more obsolete. Later in the war, the French army under Charles VII became known for its use of artillery. Improved warships and naval innovations were also a notable advance during the Hundred Years’ War. Specialized warships designed to transport troops rapidly and to allow for shipborne longbow volleys became decisive factors in various battles, such as the Battle of Sluys (1340). Finally, while not a “technology” in the traditional sense, the Hundred Years’ War saw the birth of an organizational innovation, the professional “standing” army. Charles VII of France established the first permanent standing army in Europe since the Roman Empire. Standardized equipment and training for an army under direct royal control enhanced military capabilities compared to the traditional feudal and mercenary armies, giving the French military a significant advantage.

History

Why did the Suez Canal increase European interest in the Ottoman Empire?

The Suez Canal was completed in 1869, connecting the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea, creating a shortcut between Europe and Asia. Because the canal was built in modern-day Egypt, which was, at the time, under the control of the Ottoman Empire, it became of immediate interest to European colonial powers, especially Britain and France, as an opportunity to more easily access their colonies in India and East Asia. The colonial empires were interested in this new maritime route for both trade and military movement. Because the canal allowed navies and trade ships to avoid the long, dangerous trip around the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa, European powers wanted to protect and influence the route. This desire for an easier route drove imperial rivalries. As the Ottoman Empire weakened, the British and French both saw opportunities to expand their influence into Ottoman territory, especially in Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. The canal boosted European economic involvement in Ottoman lands through investment, loans, and infrastructure projects. When Egypt faced a debt crisis (partially as a result of the costs of constructing the canal), Britain and France intervened. Ultimately, the British would occupy Egypt in 1882, gaining control of the canal for a time.

History

How did the number of factories in the North affect the Civil War?

One major difference between the North (Union) and South (Confederacy) during the US Civil War was the nature of their economies. While the entirety of the US was still predominantly agricultural, the Union states had a far greater industrial capacity than the Confederacy. First, the North’s factories could mass-produce weapons, including rifles, cannons, and bullets, as well as other military supplies such as uniforms, boots, and tents, allowing the Union Army to be better equipped and more quickly re-equipped relative to the Confederate Army. Industrial production also gave the Union a logistical advantage through its railroad network. Many factories were able to quickly produce railroad tracks, trains, and necessary repair parts, allowing for faster troop and supply movement. Wartime production and economic diversity also gave the North a general resilience during the war, allowing it to sustain large, well-equipped armies.

History

How did Marco Polo influence the Age of Exploration?

Marco Polo, a merchant, explorer, and writer born in Venice, Italy, traveled extensively through Asia between 1271 and 1295 CE. The travelogue *The Travels of Marco Polo* (also known as *Livres des Merveilles du Monde* and *Il Milione*), published around the year 1300 CE, was written by Rustichello da Pisa and Polo himself, and documents his travels in Asia and his activities and service in the court of Kublai Khan (Emperor Shizu of Yuan, Setsen Khan). His book introduced Europe to the wealth and culture of the civilizations in China, India, and other parts of Asia. His depictions of Asia increased curiosity about the continent and motivated subsequent travelers to explore new routes for trade to access that wealth. Even explorers like Christopher Columbus were said to have carried versions of the book during their travels as a guide and inspiration for their own travels. Marco Polo’s travels and book also enhanced geographical knowledge of Asia and were utilized by cartographers and navigators, although in some cases, his accounts were inaccurate or exaggerated. His writings and discoveries bridged medieval Europe to the wider world, planting the notion that exploration could lead to immense wealth and knowledge, and helping to ignite the Age of Exploration.

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