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Psychology

What was Pavlov’s experiment?

Pavlov’s experiment, one of the most well-known in psychology, demonstrated classical conditioning, a form of learning based on association. In his research with dogs, he trained them to salivate when they heard the sound of a bell. In the early 1900s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov was conducting research on the digestive processes of dogs. During these experiments, the dogs were connected to a device that recorded their saliva production, allowing Pavlov to measure how much they salivated under different conditions. Pavlov noticed something unexpected, unrelated to his original study: the dogs started salivating as soon as the lab assistants who usually fed them entered the room, even though no food had yet been presented. Pavlov hypothesised that the dogs salivated because they had learned to anticipate being fed, as they had formed an association between the arrival of the technicians and the food that usually followed. As a result, Pavlov changed the main focus of his research. Working with his team, he began to investigate this phenomenon more closely. In a series of experiments, dogs were repeatedly exposed to a sound, such as a ringing bell, immediately before being given food. After many repetitions, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even when no food was presented. **Before Conditioning** NS (Bell) → No relevant response UCS (Food) → UCR (Salivation) **During Conditioning** NS (Bell) + UCS (Food) → UCR (Salivation) **After Conditioning** CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation) They had learned to associate the sound with the food that followed. Pavlov had discovered a key learning process that became known as classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus, such as a bell, is paired with a stimulus, such as food, that naturally produces a response. After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus alone is able to trigger the same response.

Psychology

What is an MRI in psychology?

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a brain imaging technique that uses strong magnetic fields, radio waves, and a computer to produce detailed 2D or 3D images of brain structure, which can then be analysed by a trained professional. This method allows researchers to explore how differences or changes in brain structure may be linked to changes in behaviour, and vice versa. One strength of MRI is that it is safe and non-invasive, allowing repeated scans to be conducted without exposing participants to harmful radiation. This makes it useful for studying long-term changes in the brain. However, a limitation is that MRI only provides structural information, not data about brain activity. It is also expensive and requires participants to remain very still during the scan, which can be challenging for certain groups and may limit its accessibility in some research contexts. In psychology, researchers use MRI to study how the brain develops from childhood to adulthood, helping them understand typical brain maturation and how it relates to behaviour and cognitive abilities. MRI is also used to show neuroplasticity, revealing how the brain physically changes in response to learning and experience.

Psychology

What is a synapse in psychology?

The synapse is the junction between two neurons and includes all the components necessary for neural communication within the nervous system. It consists of the terminal sacs (or vesicles) located at the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap (or cleft) between the neurons, and the receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. When a neurotransmitter (a chemical messenger) is released from the terminal sacs of the presynaptic neuron, it crosses the synaptic gap and binds with complementary receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. These neurotransmitters can either stimulate or inhibit the activity of the postsynaptic neuron. In doing so, neurotransmission can influence human behaviour. Whether a neurotransmitter has an excitatory or inhibitory effect depends on the type of neurotransmitter and the specific receptors involved in the synapse.

Psychology

What should you do to increase the reliability of an experiment?

Reliability refers to the extent to which results or measurements remain consistent when research is repeated by the original researchers (repeatability) or by different researchers using the same methods (reproducibility). A researcher can do the following to increase the reliability of an experiment. **Standardise procedures**: Using the same instructions, materials, and conditions for all participants reduces variation caused by inconsistent administration. This ensures that any repetition of the experiment is more likely to yield consistent results, directly increasing reliability. **Use reliable measurement tools**: Instruments that consistently produce the same results (e.g. validated tests, calibrated equipment) reduce measurement error. This increases the reliability of data across repeated uses. **Repeat the experiment (supports repeatability)**: Conducting the experiment more than once checks whether the same researchers can get consistent results under the same conditions. This directly tests and improves repeatability, a key aspect of reliability. **Clearly document methods and procedures (supports reproducibility)**: Providing detailed descriptions of how the study was conducted allows other researchers to accurately repeat it. This improves reproducibility by enabling others to get consistent results using the same method.

Psychology

What is a crucial disadvantage to correlational research?

A crucial disadvantage of correlational research is that it cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships. A correlational study examines the possible relationship between two or more variables. However, unlike a true experiment, the researchers do not manipulate variables; rather, they investigate naturally occurring or pre-existing variables. As such, correlational studies suffer from the directional problem, which refers to the difficulty in determining which variable is causing a change in the other. For example, does having a “good memory” cause a person’s hippocampus to be larger, or does having a larger hippocampus result in stronger memory? The directional problem is sometimes referred to as bidirectional ambiguity. Bidirectional ambiguity raises a broader question about whether two variables might be influencing each other simultaneously through mutual interaction. A further problem with correlational research is that researchers cannot rule out the possibility that a third variable, a confounding or extraneous factor, is responsible for the observed relationship.

Psychology

What are the key components of an experiment?

In psychology, true experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable. In such experiments, participants are randomly assigned to conditions, meaning a true experiment cannot be conducted if participants are grouped based on pre-existing characteristics. When conducting experiments, researchers use standardised procedures and aim to tightly control all other variables apart from the independent variable. These rigorous methods are designed to isolate the effects of the independent variable and establish a cause-and-effect relationship between it and the dependent variable. Experiments test a hypothesis, and the data collected can usually be analysed for statistical significance. They are often carried out on a large scale with representative samples to increase the likelihood that the results can be generalised to larger populations of interest.

Psychology

What Is the directionality problem in psychology research?

The directional problem in psychology occurs when a correlation or relationship is found between two variables, and difficulty arises in determining which variable has caused the change in the other. For example, does having a “good memory” cause a person’s hippocampus to be larger, or does having a larger hippocampus result in having a stronger memory? The directional problem is sometimes referred to as bidirectional ambiguity. Bidirectional ambiguity raises a more general question about whether two variables are influencing each other simultaneously through mutual interaction. Issues with directionality most commonly occur when conducting correlational research. A correlational study examines the possible relationship between two or more variables. However, unlike a true experiment, the researchers do not manipulate variables; rather, they investigate naturally occurring or pre-existing variables.

Psychology

How does conformity change as group size increases?

The size of the majority must be considered when examining the impact of group size on conformity. Conformity refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their thoughts, feelings, or behaviours to align with group norms, behaviours or expectations due to real or imagined pressure. Experiments conducted by Solomon Asch demonstrated that as the size of the majority increased, and therefore the overall group size increased, rates of conformity also rose. Asch also found that when the majority group size was small (for example, 1–2 people), conformity was relatively low. However, when the majority increased to 3 people, conformity rose significantly. After this initial rise, further increases in the size of the majority had relatively little impact on conformity levels.

Psychology

How does culture influence your goals?

Culture can influence a person's goals through the cultural dimension of individualism vs. collectivism, which refers to how much a culture values personal independence (individualism) versus group cohesion and interdependence (collectivism). This dimension exists on a continuum, meaning some cultures are high in individualism or collectivism, while others may be more moderate or low. In more individualistic cultures (e.g., the USA), people are encouraged to pursue personal goals, such as career success, self-improvement, or personal happiness. Individuals in these cultures often define their identity based on personal traits and achievements, and success is typically seen as the result of one’s own efforts. In contrast, in more collectivistic cultures (e.g., China or Japan), individuals are more likely to set goals that reflect the needs and expectations of their family, community, or social group. People may prioritise group harmony, social roles, and responsibilities over personal ambition. For example, a person might choose a career path that benefits their family or upholds group traditions, even if it doesn’t align with their personal preference.

Psychology

Why are researchers likely to choose a correlational design?

Researchers are likely to choose a correlational design when they want or need to examine variables without manipulating them. In such instances, using a correlational method can be useful. There are a number of reasons why researchers might not manipulate variables and instead choose to conduct a correlational study. Below are just a few of the reasons why a researcher is likely to choose a correlational design. - Researchers might choose to conduct a correlational study rather than an experiment because sometimes it is unethical or impractical to manipulate certain independent variables. - Researchers may want to know whether two natural variables are related, and there is no need to manipulate them. - Researchers may also choose a correlational design for practical and cost-related reasons. Correlational studies are usually faster and less expensive to conduct.

Psychology

What is the right to withdraw in psychological studies?

The right to withdraw is one of a range of ethical considerations that researchers are required to follow when conducting psychological research. The right to withdraw specifically refers to the principle that a person should be able to remove themselves and their data from a research study at any time, without experiencing undue pressure or negative consequences. The right to withdraw, along with other ethical obligations, ensures that all research is conducted responsibly and that participants and the wider community are not adversely impacted as a result of the research. Participants should be informed of their right to withdraw when providing informed consent, and should be reminded of it again during debriefing.

Psychology

Why can't causation be inferred from correlational studies?

Causation cannot be inferred from correlational studies because they do not control or manipulate variables. When conducting a correlational study, the researchers investigate the potential relationship between two or more pre-existing variables. Without manipulating and controlling variables, it is impossible for the researchers to rule out other explanations for any observed relationships. It is possible that a third unmeasured variable could be responsible for the relationship. For example, some correlational studies have indicated a relationship between coffee consumption and lung cancer. However it is entirely possible that people who drink more coffee might also smoke more. In short, correlational studies investigate relationships between variables, but because they lack the rigorous manipulation and control found in true experiments, cause-and-effect relationships cannot be established.

Psychology

What is standard deviation in psychology?

The standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that shows how spread out the values in a data set are around the mean. It indicates the extent to which individual data points differ from the average. A smaller standard deviation means the data are closely clustered around the mean, while a larger one suggests greater variability. Because it is based on the original data, the standard deviation uses the same unit of measurement. For example, in a psychology study recording participants' reaction times in seconds, the standard deviation would also be in seconds. A low standard deviation would indicate that most participants responded at similar speeds, whereas a high standard deviation would reflect more varied reaction times.

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